3D Printer Head: Nozzle that deposits filament or applies colors and liquid binder; 3D Build Platform or Build Bed: The part of the printer where the object is printed; 3D Printer Stepper Motors (at least 4): Used for precise positioning and speed control; 3D Printer Electronics: Used to drive motors, heat the extruder and much more. Binder jet 3D printing, known variously as 'Powder bed and inkjet' and 'drop-on-powder' printing, is a rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing technology for making objects described by digital data such as a CAD file. Binder jetting is one of the seven categories of additive manufacturing processes according to ASTM and ISO.
3D printing is the latest thing to excite anyone who loves easy-to-use interactive technology. Engineers and scientists have actually been working with this amazing equipment since way back in 1983. That’s the time when an American engineer named Charles (Chuck) Hull invented the first ever 3D printer. He called it his SLA machine, which stands for stereolithography apparatus.
Some in the industry refer to part of the 3D printing process as Additive Manufacturing (AM), but we’ll use its practical name here—3D Printing. This will keep the guide consistent and easy to read.
The Reasons for Several Types of 3D Printer
The reasons there are different types of 3D printers and printing processes are similar to that of the 2D printers we’re so familiar with. It all comes down to the following six considerations:
- Printer cost
- Print quality
- Print speed
- Printer capability
- Practicality
- User expectations
Some printers only print text—others text and graphics. The technologies and materials used also vary, and the way the machine extrudes ink to paper. 3D printers are even smarter. And like their 2D counterparts, they also offer a range of options including quality, materials, and price.
The 3D Printing Process in a Nutshell
The 3D printing process is no longer difficult for the home user once you grasp the basic principles. OK, so printers, printing materials, printed objects, and 3D printing software can all vary. Yet despite this, the process from design to end product follows a similar path. We’ve covered these processes in some detail in another guide, but here’s how it looks in a nutshell:
- User has access to a 3D modeling application or a 3D scanner
- User creates a virtual design (3D model) of the object they want to print in 3D
- User typically saves their design as a Computer Aided Design file, or CAD for short
- User slices their CAD file before sending it to the printer
- User uploads the sliced CAD file to the 3D printer
- Printer reads each slice in the 2D file to create the three dimensional object
Who Is this Guide For?
This simple guide is for those who want to understand the differences between different 3D printing types. It’s also for hobbyists, schools, libraries, and anyone else who wants to invest in this amazing technology. If you know nothing at all about 3D printing—but would like to learn—this guide is for YOU. Don’t worry, we’re not going to overwhelm you or blind you with science.
By the end of this guide, you’ll have a good, basic understanding of all the 3D printer types available today. If you’re thinking about investing in a 3D printer, we’ve got you covered. You’re going to be in a much better position to make a well-informed decision before parting with your hard earned cash.
The Focus of this Guide
This guide focuses on the most common types of 3D printers in use today. We’ll introduce each of these machines by their long names first. After that we’ll use the appropriate acronyms to keep the reading easy. For example, stereolithography becomes SLA. And Laminated Object Manufacturing becomes LOM, as two examples.
Here are the nine 3D printer types you will learn about:
The Basic Components of a 3D Printer
Before we begin to look at the various 3D printer types and printing practices, we’ll take a moment to list the main components of these machines. There are many parts, and each one plays a crucial role in the printing process. We’re not going to get too technical here. It’s still important, however, to know what the main components are. This will help you to better understand the printing processes as you read through the various sections.
The main components, and their use, in a 3D printer are:
- 3D Printer Frame: Holds the machine together
- 3D Printer Head movement mechanics: moves relative to the print bed in all directions
- 3D Printer Head: Nozzle that deposits filament or applies colors and liquid binder
- 3D Build Platform or Build Bed: The part of the printer where the object is printed
- 3D Printer Stepper Motors (at least 4): Used for precise positioning and speed control
- 3D Printer Electronics: Used to drive motors, heat the extruder and much more
- 3D Printer Firmware: Permanent software used to control every aspect of a 3D printer
- 3D Printer Software: Not part of the actual printer but still needed for the printing process
You can read a more in-depth explanation of the 3D printer components here.
3D Support Substances
Many 3D printers use various substances that support complex geometries. Support materials are as essential to the 3D printing process as the actual base materials. Without support during the build there would not be a successful outcome. These materials offer a better solution than the old physical support structures of the past. Once printing is complete, the user simply removes any support substance from the finished part.
Some 3D technologies use support materials that dissolve when placed into a chemical bath. Others will use the surrounding powder as a way to keep everything in place. And there are those which use a squidgy, gel-like substance. You will read about which printing process uses what kind of support materials in this guide.
1) Stereolithography (SLA) Technology
SLA is a fast prototyping process. Those who use this technology are serious about accuracy and precision. It can produce objects from 3D CAD data (computer-generated) files in just a few hours. This is a 3D printing process that’s popular for its fine details and exactness. Machines that use this technology produce unique models, patterns, prototypes, and various production parts. They do this by converting liquid photopolymers (a special type of plastic) into solid 3D objects, one layer at a time. The plastic is first heated to turn it into a semi-liquid form, and then it hardens on contact. The printer constructs each of these layers using an ultra violet laser, directed by X and Y scanning mirrors. Just before each print cycle, a recoater blade moves across the surface to ensure each thin layer of resin spreads evenly across the object. The print cycle continues in this way, building 3D objects from the bottom up.
Once completed, someone takes the 3D object from the printer and detaches it carefully from the platform. The 3D part will usually have a chemical bath to remove any excess resin. It’s also common practice to post-cure the object in an ultra violet oven. What this does is render the finished item stronger and more stable. Depending on the part, it may then go through a hand sanding process and have some professional painting done. SLA printing has become a favored economical choice for a wide variety of industries. Some of these include automotive, medical, aerospace, entertainment, and also to create various consumer products.
Some SLA printers include: 3D printer Pegasus Touch SLA technology, XYZprinting Nobel 1.0 SLA 3D Printer, SUNLU SLA Desktop 3D Printer, Form 1+ SLA 3D Printer.
2) Digital Light Processing (DLP) Technology
DLP is the oldest of the 3D printing technologies, created by a man called Larry Hornbeck back in 1987. It’s similar to SLA (see above), given that it also works with photopolymers. The liquid plastic resin used by the printer goes into a translucent resin container. There is, however, one major difference between the two, which is the source of light. While SLA uses ultra violet light, DLP uses a more traditional light source, usually arc lamps. This process results in pretty impressive printing speeds. When there’s plenty of light, the resin is quick to harden (we’re talking seconds). Compared to SLA 3D printing, DLP achieves quicker print times for most parts. The reason it’s faster is because it exposes entire layers at once. With SLA printing, a laser has to draw out each of these layers, and this takes time.
Another plus point for DLP printing technology is that it is robust and produces high resolution models every time. It’s also economical with the ability to use cheaper materials for even complex and detailed objects. This is something that not only reduces waste, but also keeps printing costs low.
Some DLP printers include: Makex M-one Desktop DLP 3d Printer, Desktop UV DLP, LumiPocket – Miniature DLP, Solus DLP 3D Printer
3) Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Technology
FDM is a 3D printing process developed by Scott Crump, and then implemented by Stratasys Ltd., in the 1980s. It uses production grade thermal plastic materials to print its 3D objects. It’s popular for producing functional prototypes, concept models, and manufacturing aids. It’s a technology that can create accurate details and boasts an exceptional strength to weight ratio.
Before the FDM printing process begins, the user has to slice the 3D CAD data (the 3D model) into multiple layers using special software. The sliced CAD data goes to the printer which then builds the object layer at a time on the build platform. It does this simply by heating and then extruding the thermoplastic filament through the nozzle and onto the base. The printer can also extrude various support materials as well as the thermoplastic. For example, as a way to support upper layers, the printer can add special support material underneath, which then dissolves after the printing process. As with all 3D printers, the time it takes to print all depends on the objects size and its complexity.
Like many other 3D technologies, the finished object needs cleaning. Raw FDM parts can show fairly visible layer-lines on some objects. These will obviously need hand sanding and finishing after printing. This is the only way to get a smooth, end product with an even surface. FDM finished objects are both functional and durable. This makes it a popular process for use in a wide range of industries, including for mechanical engineering and parts manufacturers. BMW uses FDM 3D printing, as does the well-known food company Nestle, to name just a couple.
Some FDM printers include: JGAURORA 3d Desktop FDM Printer, ALUNAR High Resolution Desktop FDM 3D Printer, Original Prusa i3 MK2, PowerSpec 3D Pro, Lulzbot Mini, FlashForge Creator Pro.
4) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Technology
An American businessman, inventor, and teacher named Dr. Carl Deckard developed and patented SLS technology in the mid-1980s. It’s a 3D printing technique that uses high power CO2 lasers to fuse particles together. The laser sinters powdered metal materials (though it can utilize other materials too, like white nylon powder, ceramics and even glass). Here’s how it works:
The build platform, or bed, lowers incrementally with each successive laser scan. It’s a process that repeats one layer at a time until it reaches the object’s height. There is un-sintered support from other powders during the build process that surround and protect the model. This means the 3D objects don’t need other support structures during the build. Someone will remove the un-sintered powders manually after printing. SLS produces durable, high precision parts, and it can use a wide range of materials. It’s a perfect technology for fully-functional, end-use parts and prototypes. SLS is quite similar to SLA technology with regards to speed and quality. The main difference is with the materials, as SLS uses powdered substances, whereas SLA uses liquid resins. It’s this wide variety of available materials that makes SLA technology so popular for printing customized objects.
Some SLA printers include: XYZprinting Nobel 1.0 SLA 3D Printer, SUNLU SLA Desktop 3D Printer, Formlabs Form 2, 3D Systems ProJet 1200, DWS Lab Xfab.
5) Selective Laser Melting (SLM) Technology
SLM made its debut appearance back in 1995. It was part of a German research project at the Fraunhofer Institute ILT, located in the country’s most western city of Aachen. Like SLA (see above), SLM also uses a high-powered laser beam to form 3D parts. During the printing process, the laser beam melts and fuses various metallic powders together. The simple way to look at this is to break down the basic process like thus:
Powdered material + heat + precision + layered structure = a perfect 3D object.
As the laser beam hits a thin layer of the material, it selectively joins or welds the particles together. After one complete print cycle, the printer adds a new layer of powered material to the previous one. The object then lowers by the precise amount of the thickness of a single layer. When the print process is complete, someone will manually remove the unused powder from the object. The main difference between SLM and SLS is that SLM completely melts the powder, whereas SLS only partly melts it (sinters). In general, SLM end products tend to be stronger as they have fewer or no voids.
A common use for SLM printing is with 3D parts that have complex structures, geometries and thin walls. The aerospace industry uses SLM 3D printing in some of its pioneering projects. These are typically those which focus on precise, durable, lightweight parts. It’s a costly technology, though, and so not practical or popular with home users for that reason. SLM is quite widespread now among the aerospace and medical orthopedics industries. Those who invest in SLM 3D printers include researchers, universities, and metal powder developers. There are others too, who are keen to explore the full range and future potential of metal additive manufacturing in particular.
Some SLM industrial printers include: SLM Solutions SLM 125, 280, and 500, Realizer SLM 125, Optomec LENS 450, others.
6) Electron Beam Melting (EBM) Technology
A Swedish company called Arcam AB founded EBM® in 1997. This is a 3D printing technology similar to SLM (see above), in that it uses a powder bed fusion technique. The difference between the two is the power source. The SLM approach above uses high-powered laser in a chamber of noble, or inert gas. EBM, on the other hand, uses a powerful electron beam in a vacuum. Aside from the power source, the remaining processes between the two are quite similar. EBM’s main use is to 3D print metal parts. Its main characteristics are its ability to achieve complex geometries with freedom of design. EBM also produces parts that are incredibly strong and dense in their makeup.
Here are a few of EBM’s other impressive features:
- Doesn’t need extra auxiliary equipment for the 3D printing process
- Has increased efficiency using raw materials
- Lessens lead times resulting in parts getting to market faster
- Can create fully functional, durable parts on demand for wide-ranging industries
The printing process starts like most others in that the user has to first create a 3D model, or computer-generated digital file.
An industrial EBM printer includes: Arcam Q20
7) Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) Technology
A Californian company called Helisys Inc. (now Cubic Technologies), first developed LOM as an effective and affordable method of 3D printing. A US design engineer called Michael Feygin—a pioneer in 3D printed technologies—originally patented LOM.
LOM is a rapid prototyping system that works by fusing or laminating layers of plastic or paper using both heat and pressure. A computer-controlled blade or laser cuts the object to the desired shape. Once each printed layer is complete, the platform moves down by about 1/16th of an inch, ready for the next layer. The printer then pulls a new sheet of material across the substrate where it’s adhered by a heated roller. This basic process continues over and over until the 3D part is complete.
According to Wikipedia, the LOM printing works as follows:
- Sheet is adhered to a substrate with a heated roller.
- Laser traces desired dimensions of prototype.
- Laser cross hatches non-part area to facilitate waste removal.
- Platform with completed layer moves down out of the way.
- Fresh sheet of material is rolled into position.
- Platform downs into new position to receive next layer.
- The process is repeated.
It might not be the most popular method of 3D printing today, but LOM remains one of the fastest nonetheless. It’s also perhaps the most affordable method for creating 3D prototypes. The reason for this is because of the low cost of materials used (papers and plastics). It’s also a process that can create fairly large 3D printed objects. Those who continue to use LOM printers today include architects, artists, and product developers.
One popular LOM printer is: The Mcor Matrix
8) Binder Jetting (BJ) Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) first invented BJ 3D printing. You may also hear this technology referred to in other names, including:
- Powder bed printing
- Inkjet 3D printing
- Drop-on-powder
- Binder jetting (BJ). This is the most popular name and the one we’ll use to refer to it.
BJ is a 3D printing process that uses two types of materials to build objects: a powder-based material (usually gypsum) and a bonding agent. As the name suggests, the “bonding” agent acts as a strong adhesive to attach (bond) the powder layers together. The printer nozzles extrude the binder in liquid form similar to a regular 2D inkjet printer. After completing each layer, the build plate lowers slightly to allow for the next one. This process repeats until the object reaches its required height.
The four popular materials used in BJ printing include:
- Ceramics
- Metals
- Sand
- Plastics
It’s not possible to get super high-resolution or overly rugged 3D objects with BJ printing, but there are other advantages. For example, these printers allow you to print parts in full color. To do this, you simply add color pigments to the binder, which typically include black, white, cyan, yellow, and magenta. This technology is still advancing, so expect more great things to come in the future. At the time of writing, some applications of BJ 3D printing include rapid prototyping, and various uses in the aerospace, automotive, and medical industries.
Some BJ printers include:Addwii Unveils The X1, ExOne R2, ZCorp Spectrum z510
9) Material Jetting (MJ) Polyjet and Wax Casting Technology
You will also hear Material Jetting referred to as wax casting. Unlike other 3D printing technologies, there isn’t a single inventor for MJ. In fact, up until recent times it’s been more of a technique than an actual printing process. It’s something jewelers have used for centuries. Wax casting has been a traditional process where the user produces high-quality, customizable jewelry. The reason it gets a mention here is because of the introduction of 3D printing. Thanks to the arrival of this technology, wax casting is now an automated process. Today, MJ 3D printers produce high-resolution parts, mainly for the dental and Jewelry industries,
For jewelers who want to experiment with various casts—as most jewelers do—MJ is now their leading 3D technology. At the time of writing, there are a few high-quality professional wax 3D printers on the market. Here’s how they work:
Once the 3D model (CAD file) is uploaded to the printer, it’s all systems go. The printer adds molten (heated) wax to the aluminum build platform in controlled layers. It achieves this using nozzles that sweep evenly across the build area. As soon as the heated material lands on the build plate it begins to cool down and solidify (UV light helps to cure the layers). As the 3D part builds up, a gel-like material helps to support the printing process of more complex geometries. Like all support materials in 3D printing, it’s easy to remove it afterward, either by hand or by using powerful water jets. Once the part is complete you can use it right away, no further post-curing necessary.
There are also Polyjet MJ 3D printers, which use photopolymer-resins rather than synthetic waxes. Polyjet technology also offers very good resolution. Unlike digital wax printers, people use Polyjet devices to create parts for a wide range of industries.
Some MJ printers include: ABS 3D printer, PLA 3D printer (large format), HP Multi Jet Fusion
Summing Up
3D printers and print technology is advancing all the time. As it does, prices will continue to fall as the devices and processes become ever more impressive. If you’ve read this guide from top to bottom, you will now have a good basic understanding of the different 3D printers and how they work. You will also know of the various materials printers use and the industries they support. And if you need a refresher, you can simply revisit any section of this guide at any time.
No Printer No Problem
Remember too, you don’t have to own a 3D printer to learn the technology or to print in 3D. There are plenty of free web-based 3D printing design & modeling software programs to choose from. Once you have your 3D design, you are good to go. You should be able to find someone in your local area with a 3D printer who will print your project for a nominal fee. Check out the schools, libraries or small startups at local co-working centers. Failing that, submit your 3D digital file online and let one of the 3D services print your model.
A three-dimensional printer
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The term 3D printing covers a variety of processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object,[1] with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together), typically layer by layer. In the 1990s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the production of functional or aesthetical prototypes and a more appropriate term was rapid prototyping. Today, the precision, repeatability and material range have increased to the point that some 3D printing processes are considered viable as an industrial production technology, whereby the term additive manufacturing can be used synonymously with 3D printing. One of the key advantages of 3D printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes or geometries, and a prerequisite for producing any 3D printed part is a digital 3D model or a CAD file.
The most commonly used 3D Printing process is a material extrusion technique called fused deposition modeling (FDM).[2] Metal Powder bed fusion has been gaining prominence lately during the immense applications of metal parts in the 3D printing industry. In 3D Printing, a three-dimensional object is built from a computer-aided design (CAD) model, usually by successively adding material layer by layer, unlike the conventional machining process, where material is removed from a stock item, or the casting and forging processes which date to antiquity.[3][4]
The term '3D printing' originally referred to a process that deposits a binder material onto a powder bed with inkjet printer heads layer by layer. More recently, the term is being used in popular vernacular to encompass a wider variety of additive manufacturing techniques. United States and global technical standards use the official term additive manufacturing for this broader sense.
- 3General principles
- 6Legal aspects
- 7Health and safety
- 7.1Hazards
- 8Impact
Terminology[edit]
The umbrella termadditive manufacturing (AM) gained popularity in the 2000s,[5] inspired by the theme of material being added together (in any of various ways). In contrast, the term subtractive manufacturing appeared as a retronym for the large family of machining processes with material removal as their common theme. The term 3D printing still referred only to the polymer technologies in most minds, and the term AM was more likely to be used in metalworking and end use part production contexts than among polymer, ink-jet, or stereo lithography enthusiasts.
By early 2010s, the terms 3D printing and additive manufacturing evolved senses in which they were alternate umbrella terms for additive technologies, one being used in popular language by consumer-maker communities and the media, and the other used more formally by industrial end-use part producers, machine manufacturers, and global technical standards organizations. Until recently, the term 3D printing has been associated with machines low in price or in capability.[6]3D printing and additive manufacturing reflect that the technologies share the theme of material addition or joining throughout a 3D work envelope under automated control. Peter Zelinski, the editor-in-chief of Additive Manufacturing magazine, pointed out in 2017 that the terms are still often synonymous in casual usage[7] but some manufacturing industry experts are trying to make a distinction whereby Additive Manufacturing comprises 3D printing plus other technologies or other aspects of a manufacturing process.[7]
Other terms that have been used as synonyms or hypernyms have included desktop manufacturing, rapid manufacturing (as the logical production-level successor to rapid prototyping), and on-demand manufacturing (which echoes on-demand printing in the 2D sense of printing). Such application of the adjectives rapid and on-demand to the noun manufacturing was novel in the 2000s reveals the prevailing mental model of the long industrial era in which almost all production manufacturing involved long lead times for laborious tooling development. Today, the term subtractive has not replaced the term machining, instead complementing it when a term that covers any removal method is needed. Agile tooling is the use of modular means to design tooling that is produced by additive manufacturing or 3D printing methods to enable quick prototyping and responses to tooling and fixture needs. Agile tooling uses a cost effective and high quality method to quickly respond to customer and market needs, and it can be used in hydro-forming, stamping, injection molding and other manufacturing processes.
History[edit]
1981 : Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s.[8] In 1981, Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two additive methods for fabricating three-dimensional plastic models with photo-hardening thermoset polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask pattern or a scanning fiber transmitter.[9][10]
1984 : On 16 July 1984, Alain Le Méhauté, Olivier de Witte, and Jean Claude André filed their patent for the stereolithography process.[11] The application of the French inventors was abandoned by the French General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and CILAS (The Laser Consortium).[12] The claimed reason was 'for lack of business perspective'.[13]
Three weeks later in 1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corporation[14] filed his own patent for a stereolithography fabrication system, in which layers are added by curing photopolymers with ultraviolet lightlasers. Hull defined the process as a 'system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed,'.[15][16] Hull's contribution was the STL (Stereolithography) file format and the digital slicing and infill strategies common to many processes today.
1988: The technology used by most 3D printers to date—especially hobbyist and consumer-oriented models—is fused deposition modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion, developed in 1988 by S. Scott Crump and commercialized by his company Stratasys, which marketed its first FDM machine in 1992.
AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, and selective laser melting) usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. At the time, all metalworking was done by processes that we now call non-additive (casting, fabrication, stamping, and machining); although plenty of automation was applied to those technologies (such as by robot welding and CNC), the idea of a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape with a toolpath was associated in metalworking only with processes that removed metal (rather than adding it), such as CNC milling, CNC EDM, and many others. But the automated techniques that added metal, which would later be called additive manufacturing, were beginning to challenge that assumption. By the mid-1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, including microcasting[17] and sprayed materials.[18] Sacrificial and support materials had also become more common, enabling new object geometries.[19]
1993 : The term 3D printing originally referred to a powder bed process employing standard and custom inkjet print heads, developed at MIT in 1993 and commercialized by Soligen Technologies, Extrude Hone Corporation, and Z Corporation.
The year 1993 also saw the start of a company called Solidscape, introducing a high-precision polymer jet fabrication system with soluble support structures, (categorized as a 'dot-on-dot' technique).
1995: In 1995 the Fraunhofer Institute developed the selective laser melting process.
2009: Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printing process patents expired in 2009.[20]
As the various additive processes matured, it became clear that soon metal removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done through a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer. The 2010s were the first decade in which metal end use parts such as engine brackets[21] and large nuts[22] would be grown (either before or instead of machining) in job production rather than obligately being machined from bar stock or plate. It is still the case that casting, fabrication, stamping, and machining are more prevalent than additive manufacturing in metalworking, but AM is now beginning to make significant inroads, and with the advantages of design for additive manufacturing, it is clear to engineers that much more is to come.
As technology matured, several authors had begun to speculate that 3D printing could aid in sustainable development in the developing world.[23][24]
2012: Filabot develops a system for closing the loop[25] with plastic and allows for any FDM or FFF 3D printer to be able to print with a wider range of plastics.
2014:Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Benjamin S. Cook, and Dr. Manos M. Tentzeris demonstrate the first multi-material, vertically integrated printed electronics additive manufacturing platform (VIPRE) which enabled 3D printing of functional electronics operating up to 40GHz.[26]
General principles[edit]
Modeling[edit]
CAD model used for 3D printing
3D models can be generated from 2D pictures taken at a 3D photo booth.
3D printable models may be created with a computer-aided design (CAD) package, via a 3D scanner, or by a plain digital camera and photogrammetry software. 3D printed models created with CAD result in reduced errors and can be corrected before printing, allowing verification in the design of the object before it is printed.[27] The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of collecting digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object, creating a digital model based on it.
CAD models can be saved in the stereolithography file format (STL), a de facto CAD file format for additive manufacturing that stores data based on triangulations of the surface of CAD models. STL is not tailored for additive manufacturing because it generates large file sizes of topology optimized parts and lattice structures due to the large number of surfaces involved. A newer CAD file format, the Additive Manufacturing File format (AMF) was introduced in 2011 to solve this problem. It stores information using curved triangulations.[28]
Printing[edit]
Before printing a 3D model from an STL file, it must first be examined for errors. Most CAD applications produce errors in output STL files,[29][30] of the following types:
- holes;
- faces normals;
- self-intersections;
- noise shells;
- manifold errors.[31]
A step in the STL generation known as 'repair' fixes such problems in the original model.[32][33] Generally STLs that have been produced from a model obtained through 3D scanning often have more of these errors.[34] This is due to how 3D scanning works-as it is often by point to point acquisition, 3D reconstruction will include errors in most cases.[35]
Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software called a 'slicer,' which converts the model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code file containing instructions tailored to a specific type of 3D printer (FDM printers).[36] This G-code file can then be printed with 3D printing client software (which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the 3D printing process).
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X–Y resolution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (µm). Typical layer thickness is around 100 μm (250 DPI), although some machines can print layers as thin as 16 μm (1,600 DPI).[37] X–Y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100 μm (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.[citation needed] For that printer resolution, specifying a mesh resolution of 0.01–0.03 mm and a chord length ≤ 0.016 mm generate an optimal STL output file for a given model input file.[38] Specifying higher resolution results in larger files without increase in print quality.
3:31 Timelapse of an 80 minute video of an object being made out of PLA using molten polymer deposition
Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.[39]
Traditional techniques like injection moulding can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster, more flexible and less expensive when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.[40]
Finishing[edit]
Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, greater accuracy can be achieved by printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard resolution and then removing material using a higher-resolution subtractive process.[41]
The layered structure of all Additive Manufacturing processes leads inevitably to a strain-stepping effect on part surfaces which are curved or tilted in respect to the building platform. The effects strongly depend on the orientation of a part surface inside the building process.[42]
Some printable polymers such as ABS, allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor processes[43] based on acetone or similar solvents.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course of constructing parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not necessarily require painting.
Some printing techniques require internal supports to be built for overhanging features during construction. These supports must be mechanically removed or dissolved upon completion of the print.
All of the commercialized metal 3D printers involve cutting the metal component off the metal substrate after deposition. A new process for the GMAW 3D printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove aluminum[44] or steel.[45]
Multi-material printing[edit]
Multi-material printing allows objects to be composed of complex and heterogeneous arrangements of materials. It requires a material being directly specified for each voxel inside the object volume. The process is fraught with difficulties, due to the isolated and monolithic algorithms. There are many different ways to solve these problems, such as building a Spec2Fab translator.[46] Or use microstructures to Control Elasticity in 3D Printing.[47] There is also a solution about how to print a Multi-material 3d painting :Deep Multispectral Painting Reproduction via Multi-Layer, Custom-Ink Printing.[48]
Multi-material 3D printing is a fundamental element for development of future technology.[49]It has been already applied to variable industries. Other than common applications in small manufacturing industries, to produce toys, shoes, furniture, phone cases, instruments or even artworks.[50] With the BAAM (Big Area Additive Manufacturing) machine,[51] large products such as 3D printed houses or cars are quite feasible. It has also been widely used in high-tech industries. Researchers are devoting to producing high-temperature tools with BAAM for aerospace applications.
In medical industry, a concept of 3D printed pills and vaccines has been recently brought up.[52]With this new concept, multiple medications are capable of being united together, which accordingly will decrease many risks. With more and more applications of multi-material 3D printing, the costs of daily life and high technology development will become irreversibly lower.
Metallographic materials of 3D printing is also being researched.[53] By classifying each material, CIMP-3D can systematically perform 3D printing with multi materials.[54]
Processes and printers[edit]
There are many different branded 3D printing processes, that can be grouped into seven categories:[55]
- Material jetting
- Powder bed fusion
- Directed energy deposition
Schematic representation of the 3D printing technique known as Fused Filament Fabrication; a filament a) of plastic material is fed through a heated moving head b) that melts and extrudes it depositing it, layer after layer, in the desired shape c). A moving platform e) lowers after each layer is deposited. For this kind of technology additional vertical support structures d) are needed to sustain overhanging parts
A timelapse video of a robot model being printed using FDM
The main differences between processes are in the way layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that are used. Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies offer a choice of powder and polymer for the material used to build the object.[56] Others sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of the printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and color capabilities.[57] Printers that work directly with metals are generally expensive. However less expensive printers can be used to make a mold, which is then used to make metal parts.[58]
ISO/ASTM52900-15 defines seven categories of Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes within its meaning: binder jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, and vat photopolymerization.[59]
Some methods melt or soften the material to produce the layers. In Fused filament fabrication, also known as Fused deposition modeling (FDM), the model or part is produced by extruding small beads or streams of material which harden immediately to form layers. A filament of thermoplastic, metal wire, or other material is fed into an extrusion nozzle head (3D printer extruder), which heats the material and turns the flow on and off. FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of shapes that may be fabricated. Another technique fuses parts of the layer and then moves upward in the working area, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece.[60] Recently, FFF/FDM has expanded to 3-D print directly from pellets to avoid the conversion to filament. This process is called fused particle fabrication (FPF) (or fused granular fabrication (FGF) and has the potential to use more recycled materials.[61]
Powder Bed Fusion techniques, or PBF, include several processes such as DMLS, SLS, SLM, MJF and EBM. Powder Bed Fusion processes can be used with an array of materials and their flexibility allows for geometrically complex structures [62], making it a go to choice for many 3D printing projects. These techniques include selective laser sintering, with both metals and polymers, and direct metal laser sintering.[63]Selective laser melting does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will completely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical properties similar to those of conventional manufactured metals. Electron beam melting is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g. titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum.[64][65] Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system, which creates the model one layer at a time by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins) and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an inkjet-like process. With laminated object manufacturing, thin layers are cut to shape and joined together. In addition to the previously mentioned methods, HP has developed the Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) which is a powder base technic, though no laser are involved. An inkjet array applies fusing and detailing agents which are then combined by heating to create a solid layer[66].
Schematic representation of Stereolithography; a light-emitting device a) (laser or DLP) selectively illuminate the transparent bottom c) of a tank b) filled with a liquid photo-polymerizing resin; the solidified resin d) is progressively dragged up by a lifting platform e)
Other methods cure liquid materials using different sophisticated technologies, such as stereolithography. Photopolymerization is primarily used in stereolithography to produce a solid part from a liquid. Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray photopolymer materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30 µm) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer is cured with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in multiphoton photopolymerisation. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser was focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.[67] Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using LEDs.[68]
In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography, a 3D digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a two-dimensional mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the layer.[69]Continuous liquid interface production begins with a pool of liquid photopolymerresin. Part of the pool bottom is transparent to ultraviolet light (the 'window'), which causes the resin to solidify. The object rises slowly enough to allow resin to flow under and maintain contact with the bottom of the object.[70] In powder-fed directed-energy deposition, a high-power laser is used to melt metal powder supplied to the focus of the laser beam. The powder fed directed energy process is similar to Selective Laser Sintering, but the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the part at that moment.[71][72]
As of December 2017, additive manufacturing systems were on the market that ranged from $99 to $500,000 in price and were employed in industries including aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. For example, General Electric uses the high-end model to build parts for turbines.[73] Many of these systems are used for rapid prototyping, before mass production methods are employed. Higher education has proven to be a major buyer of desktop and professional 3D printers which industry experts generally view as a positive indicator.[74] Libraries around the world have also become locations to house smaller 3D printers for educational and community access.[75] Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this work has been driven by and targeted at DIY/Maker/enthusiast/early adopter communities, with additional ties to the academic and hacker communities.[76]
Computed axial lithography is a method for 3D printing based on computerised tomography scans to create prints in photo-curable resin. It was developed by a collaboration between the University of California, Berkeley with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[77][78][79] Unlike other methods of 3D printing it does not build models through depositing layers of material like fused deposition modelling and stereolithography, instead it creates objects using a series of 2D images projected onto a cylinder of resin.[77][79] It is notable for its ability to build an object much more quickly than other methods using resins and the ability to embed objects within the prints.[78]
Liquid additive manufacturing (LAM) is an additive manufacturing technique which deposits a liquid or high viscose material (e.g Liquid Silicone Rubber) onto a build surface to create an object which then vulcanised using heat to harden the object.[80][81][82] The process was originally created by Adrian Bowyer and was then built upon by German RepRap.[80][83][84]
Applications[edit]
The Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial KUKA robots.
A 3D selfie in 1:20 scale printed using gypsum-based printing
A 3D printed jet engine model
3D printed enamelled pottery
3D printed sculpture of an Egyptian Pharaoh shown at Threeding
In the current scenario, 3D printing or Additive Manufacturing has been used in manufacturing, medical, industry and sociocultural sectors which facilitate 3D printing or Additive Manufacturing to become successful commercial technology.[85] More recently, 3D printing has also been used in the humanitarian and development sector to produce a range of medical items, prosthetics, spares and repairs.[86] The earliest application of additive manufacturing was on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants, and its mission was to reduce the lead time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods such as CNC milling, turning, and precision grinding.[87] In the 2010s, additive manufacturing entered production to a much greater extent.
Additive manufacturing of food is being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta,[88] and pizza.[89][90] NASA is looking into the technology in order to create 3D printed food to limit food waste and to make food that are designed to fit an astronaut's dietary needs.[91]
3D printing has entered the world of clothing, with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed bikinis, shoes, and dresses.[92] In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.[92][93] 3D printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer grade eyewear with on-demand custom fit and styling (although they cannot print the lenses). On-demand customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.[94]
Vanessa Friedman, fashion director and chief fashion critic at The New York Times, says 3D printing will have a significant value for fashion companies down the road, especially if it transforms into a print-it-yourself tool for shoppers. 'There's real sense that this is not going to happen anytime soon,' she says, 'but it will happen, and it will create dramatic change in how we think both about intellectual property and how things are in the supply chain.' She adds: 'Certainly some of the fabrications that brands can use will be dramatically changed by technology.'[95]
In cars, trucks, and aircraft, Additive Manufacturing is beginning to transform both (1) unibody and fuselage design and production and (2) powertrain design and production. For example:
- In early 2014, Swedish supercar manufacturer Koenigsegg announced the One:1, a supercar that utilizes many components that were 3D printed.[96]Urbee is the name of the first car in the world car mounted using the technology 3D printing (its bodywork and car windows were 'printed').[97][98][99]
- In 2014, Local Motors debuted Strati, a functioning vehicle that was entirely 3D Printed using ABS plastic and carbon fiber, except the powertrain.[100] In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new Airbus A350 XWB included over 1000 components manufactured by 3D printing.[101]
- In 2015, a Royal Air ForceEurofighter Typhoon fighter jet flew with printed parts. The United States Air Force has begun to work with 3D printers, and the Israeli Air Force has also purchased a 3D printer to print spare parts.[102]
- In 2017, GE Aviation revealed that it had used design for additive manufacturing to create a helicopter engine with 16 parts instead of 900, with great potential impact on reducing the complexity of supply chains.[103]
AM's impact on firearms involves two dimensions: new manufacturing methods for established companies, and new possibilities for the making of do-it-yourself firearms. In 2012, the US-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to design a working plastic 3D printed firearm 'that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer.'[104][105] After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D printing and widespread consumer-level CNC machining[106][107] may have on gun control effectiveness.[108][109][110][111]
Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a history beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical modeling for bony reconstructive surgery planning. Patient-matched implants were a natural extension of this work, leading to truly personalized implants that fit one unique individual.[112] Virtual planning of surgery and guidance using 3D printed, personalized instruments have been applied to many areas of surgery including total joint replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with great success.[113] One example of this is the bioresorbable trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchomalacia [114] developed at the University of Michigan. The use of additive manufacturing for serialized production of orthopedic implants (metals) is also increasing due to the ability to efficiently create porous surface structures that facilitate osseointegration. The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D printing technology.[115]
In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident.[116] In May 2018, 3D printing has been used for the kidney transplant to save a three-year-old boy.[117] As of 2012, 3D bio-printing technology has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet printing techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.[118] Recently, a heart-on-chip has been created which matches properties of cells.[119]
In 3D printing, computer-simulated microstructures are commonly usedto fabricate objects with spatially varying properties. This isachieved by dividing the volume of the desired object into smallersubcells using computer aided simulation tools and then filling thesecells with appropriate microstructures during fabrication. Severaldifferent candidate structures with similar behaviours are checkedagainst each other and the object is fabricated when an optimal set ofstructures are found. Advanced topology optimization methods are used toensure the compatibility of structures in adjacent cells. Thisflexible approach to 3D fabrication is widely used across variousdisciplines from biomedical sciences where they are used to createcomplex bone structures[120] and human tissue[121] to robotics where they are used in the creation of soft robots with movable parts.[122][123]
In 2018, 3D printing technology was used for the first time to create a matrix for cell immobilization in fermentation. Propionic acid production by Propionibacterium acidipropionici immobilized on 3D-printed nylon beads was chosen as a model study. It was shown that those 3D-printed beads were capable of promoting high density cell attachment and propionic acid production, which could be adapted to other fermentation bioprocesses.[124]
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing technology.[125] As of 2017, domestic 3D printing was reaching a consumer audience beyond hobbyists and enthusiasts. Off the shelf machines were increasingly capable of producing practical household applications, for example, ornamental objects. Some practical examples include a working clock[126] and gears printed for home woodworking machines among other purposes.[127] Web sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include backscratchers, coat hooks, door knobs, etc.[128]
3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the classroom.[129][130][131][132] Some authors have claimed that 3D printers offer an unprecedented 'revolution' in STEM education.[133] The evidence for such claims comes from both the low-cost ability for rapid prototyping in the classroom by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from open hardware designs forming open-source labs.[134] Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment.[134][135]
In the last several years 3D printing has been intensively used by in the cultural heritage field for preservation, restoration and dissemination purposes.[136] Many Europeans and North American Museums have purchased 3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces of their relics.[137] The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the British Museum have started using their 3D printers to create museum souvenirs that are available in the museum shops.[138] Other museums, like the National Museum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum, have gone further and sell through the online platform Threeding digital models of their artifacts, created using Artec 3D scanners, in 3D printing friendly file format, which everyone can 3D print at home.[139]
3D printed soft actuators is a growing application of 3D printing technology which has found its place in the 3D printing applications. These soft actuators are being developed to deal with soft structures and organs especially in biomedical sectors and where the interaction between human and robot is inevitable. The majority of the existing soft actuators are fabricated by conventional methods that require manual fabrication of devices, post processing/assembly, and lengthy iterations until maturity of the fabrication is achieved. Instead of the tedious and time-consuming aspects of the current fabrication processes, researchers are exploring an appropriate manufacturing approach for effective fabrication of soft actuators. Thus, 3D printed soft actuators are introduced to revolutionise the design and fabrication of soft actuators with custom geometrical, functional, and control properties in a faster and inexpensive approach. They also enable incorporation of all actuator components into a single structure eliminating the need to use external joints, adhesives, and fasteners.[140]
Circuit board manufacturing involves multiple steps which include imaging, drilling, plating, soldermask coating, nomenclature printing and surface finishes. These steps include many chemicals such as harsh solvents and acids. 3D printing circuit boards remove the need for many of these steps while still producing complex designs. [141]. Polymer ink is used to create the layers of the build while silver polymer is used for creating the traces and holes used to allow electricity to flow. [142]. Current circuit board manufacturing can be a tedious process depending on the design. Specified materials are gathered and sent into inner layer processing where images are printed, developed and etched. The etches cores are typically punched to add lamination tooling. The cores are then prepared for lamination. The stack-up, the build up of a circuit board, is built and sent into lamination where the layers are bonded. The boards are then measured and drilled. Many steps may differ from this stage however for simple designs, the material goes through a plating process to plate the holes and surface. The outer image is then printed, developed and etched. After the image is defined, the material must get coated with soldermask for later soldering. Nomenclature is then added so components can be identified later. Then the surface finish is added. The boards are routed out of panel form into their singular or array form and then electrically tested. Aside from the paperwork which must be completed which proves the boards meet specifications, the boards are then packed and shipped. The benefits of 3D printing would be that the final outline is defined from the beginning, no imaging, punching or lamination is required and electrical connections are made with the silver polymer which eliminates drilling and plating. The final paperwork would also be greatly reduced due to the lack of materials required to build the circuit board. Complex designs which may takes weeks to complete through normal processing can be 3D printed, greatly reducing manufacturing time.
Legal aspects[edit]
Intellectual property[edit]
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries where many legal regimes, including patents, industrial design rights, copyrights, and trademarks may apply. However, there is not much jurisprudence to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and individuals or hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non-profit distribution, or for sale.
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, where an active intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, non-commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
Patents cover inventions including processes, machines, manufacturing, and compositions of matter and have a finite duration which varies between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.[143]
Copyright covers an expression[144] in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years thereafter.[145] If someone makes a statue, they may have a copyright mark on the appearance of that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identical or similar statue.
When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from the functional aspects of the item.[145] In other countries the law and the courts may apply a different approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding that, in case of unauthorized copying, only the non-functional features may be claimed under design law whereas any technical features could only be claimed if covered by a valid patent.
Gun legislation and administration[edit]
The US Department of Homeland Security and the Joint Regional Intelligence Center released a memo stating that 'significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing may present public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns' and that 'proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent, their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files.'[146]
Attempting to restrict the distribution of gun plans via the Internet has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS, which enabled DVD ripping.[147][148][149][150] After the US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via the Pirate Bay and other file sharing sites.[151] Downloads of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.[152][153] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers to prevent them from being used for printing guns.[154][155] 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor Hod Lipson suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.[156][157][158][159][160][161][162]
Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter than in the United States, some commentators have said the impact may be more strongly felt since alternative firearms are not as easily obtainable.[163] Officials in the United Kingdom have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their gun control laws.[164]Europol stated that criminals have access to other sources of weapons but noted that as technology improves, the risks of an effect would increase.[165][166]
Aerospace regulation[edit]
In the United States, the FAA has anticipated a desire to use additive manufacturing techniques and has been considering how best to regulate this process.[167] The FAA has jurisdiction over such fabrication because all aircraft parts must be made under FAA production approval or under other FAA regulatory categories.[168] In December 2016, the FAA approved the production of a 3D printed fuel nozzle for the GE LEAP engine.[169] Aviation attorney Jason Dickstein has suggested that additive manufacturing is merely a production method, and should be regulated like any other production method.[170][171] He has suggested that the FAA's focus should be on guidance to explain compliance, rather than on changing the existing rules, and that existing regulations and guidance permit a company 'to develop a robust quality system that adequately reflects regulatory needs for quality assurance.'[170]
Health and safety[edit]
A video on research done on printer emissions
Research on the health and safety concerns of 3D printing is new and in development due to the recent proliferation of 3D printing devices. In 2017 the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has published a discussion paper on the processes and materials involved in 3D printing, potential implications of this technology for occupational safety and health and avenues for controlling potential hazards.[172]
Hazards[edit]
Emissions[edit]
Emissions from fused filament printers can include a large number of ultrafine particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).[173][174][175] The toxicity from emissions varies by source material due to differences in size, chemical properties, and quantity of emitted particles.[173] Excessive exposure to VOCs can lead to irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, headache, loss of coordination, and nausea and some of the chemical emissions of fused filament printers have also been linked to asthma.[173][176] Based on animal studies, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers sometimes used in fused filament printing can cause pulmonary effects including inflammation, granulomas, and pulmonary fibrosis when at the nanoparticle size.[177] A National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) study noted particle emissions from a fused filament peaked a few minutes after printing started and returned to baseline levels 100 minutes after printing ended.[173]
Carbon nanoparticle emissions and processes using powder metals are highly combustible and raise the risk of dust explosions.[178] At least one case of severe injury was noted from an explosion involved in metal powders used for fused filament printing.[179]
Other[edit]
Additional hazards include burns from hot surfaces such as lamps and print head blocks, exposure to laser or ultraviolet radiation, electrical shock, mechanical injury from being struck by moving parts, and noise and ergonomic hazards.[180][181] Other concerns involve gas and material exposures, in particular nanomaterials, material handling, static electricity, moving parts and pressures.[182]
Hazards to health and safety also exist from post-processing activities done to finish parts after they have been printed. These post-processing activities can include chemical baths, sanding, polishing, or vapor exposure to refine surface finish, as well as general subtractive manufacturing techniques such as drilling, milling, or turning to modify the printed geometry.[183] Any technique that removes material from the printed part has the potential to generate particles that can be inhaled or cause eye injury if proper personal protective equipment is not used, such as respirators or safety glasses. Caustic baths are often used to dissolve support material used by some 3D printers that allows them to print more complex shapes. These baths require personal protective equipment to prevent injury to exposed skin.[181]
Since 3-D imaging creates items by fusing materials together, there runs the risk of layer separation in some devices made using 3-D Imaging. For example, in January 2013, the US medical device company, DePuy, recalled their knee and hip replacement systems. The devices were made from layers of metal, and shavings had come loose – potentially harming the patient.[184]
Hazard controls[edit]
Hazard controls include using manufacturer-supplied covers and full enclosures, using proper ventilation, keeping workers away from the printer, using respirators, turning off the printer if it jammed, and using lower emission printers and filaments. Personal protective equipment has been found to be the least desirable control method with a recommendation that it only be used to add further protection in combination with approved emissions protection.[173]
Health regulation[edit]
Although no occupational exposure limits specific to 3D printer emissions exist, certain source materials used in 3D printing, such as carbon nanofiber and carbon nanotubes, have established occupational exposure limits at the nanoparticle size.[173][185]
As of March 2018, the US Government has set 3D printer emission standards for only a limited number of compounds. Furthermore, the few established standards address factory conditions, not home or other environments in which the printers are likely to be used.[186]
Impact[edit]
Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible, ever-improving users of all available technologies to remain competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological development will counter globalization, as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy products from other people and corporations.[8] The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.[187]
The futurologistJeremy Rifkin[188] claimed that 3D printing signals the beginning of a third industrial revolution,[189] succeeding the production line assembly that dominated manufacturing starting in the late 19th century.
Social change[edit]
Street sign in Windhoek, Namibia, advertising 3D printing, July 2018
Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated in some depth about the social and cultural changes that might result from the advent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing technology.[190] In recent years, 3D printing is creating significant impact in the humanitarian and development sector. Its potential to facilitate distributed manufacturing is resulting in supply chain and logistics benefits, by reducing the need for transportation, warehousing and wastage. Furthermore, social and economic development is being advanced through the creation of local production economies. [191]
Others have suggested that as more and more 3D printers start to enter people's homes, the conventional relationship between the home and the workplace might get further eroded.[192] Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight services might also become less.[193] Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be replicated, it remains to be seen whether changes will be made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property rights with the new technology widely available.
As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, online social platforms have developed to support the community.[194] This includes websites that allow users to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, as well as social forums that discuss how to improve 3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well as social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D models.[195][196][197] RepRap is a wiki based website that was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has developed into a community that aims to bring 3D printing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such as Pinshape, Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which were created initially to allow users to post 3D files for anyone to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of sharing 3D files. These websites have allowed greater social interaction between users, creating communities dedicated to 3D printing.
Some call attention to the conjunction of Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and other low-cost manufacturing techniques.[198][199][200] The self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be overcome with the development of economies of scope, and here, society can play an important role contributing to the raising of the whole productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customized productivity.[198] Further, it is true that many issues, problems, and threats arise due to the democratization of the means of production, and especially regarding the physical ones.[198] For instance, the recyclability of advanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons manufacturing could become easier; not to mention the implications for counterfeiting[201] and on intellectual property.[202] It might be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose competitive dynamics were about economies of scale, Commons-based peer production 3D printing could develop economies of scope. While the advantages of scale rest on cheap global transportation, the economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of the capabilities of the fabrication tools.[198] And following Neil Gershenfeld[203] in that 'some of the least developed parts of the world need some of the most advanced technologies,' Commons-based peer production and 3D printing may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but acting locally in response to certain needs.
Larry Summers wrote about the 'devastating consequences' of 3D printing and other technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform routine tasks. In his view, 'already there are more American men on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will increase rapidly in the years ahead.' Summers recommends more vigorous cooperative efforts to address the 'myriad devices' (e.g., tax havens, bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of great wealth to 'a paying' income and estate taxes, and to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring 'great social contributions' in return, including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly laws, reductions in 'excessive' protection for intellectual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements, improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of financial regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity, easing of land-use restrictions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep rising in value, better training for young people and retraining for displaced workers, and increased public and private investment in infrastructure development—e.g., in energy production and transportation.[204]
Michael Spence wrote that 'Now comes a ... powerful, wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitution and disintermediation has been underway for some time in service sectors—think of ATMs, online banking, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor.' In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D printers) and, more important, in creating the software that enables machines to carry out various tasks. 'Once this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relatively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling.'[205]
Spence believes that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital technologies 'is cost reduction via the replacement of labor.' For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is 'easy to imagine' that production may become 'extremely' local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand, not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth and employment expansion, with labor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will appear in both developed and developing countries. In his view, production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around digital technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment and expansion. Spence writes that 'the world we are entering is one in which the most powerful global flows will be ideas and digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital. Adapting to this will require shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in human capital), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution.'[205]
Naomi Wu regards the usage of 3D printing in the Chinese classroom (where rote memorization is standard) to teach design principles and creativity as the most exciting recent development of the technology, and more generally regards 3D printing as being the next desktop publishing revolution.[206]
Environmental change[edit]
The growth of additive manufacturing could have a large impact on the environment. As opposed to traditional manufacturing, for instance, in which pieces are cut from larger blocks of material, additive manufacturing creates products layer-by-layer and prints only relevant parts, wasting much less material and thus wasting less energy in producing the raw materials needed.[207] By making only the bare structural necessities of products, additive manufacturing also could make a profound contribution to lightweighting, reducing the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of vehicles and other forms of transportation.[208] A case study on an airplane component made using additive manufacturing, for example, found that the component's use saves 63% of relevant energy and carbon dioxide emissions over the course of the product's lifetime.[209] In addition, previous life-cycle assessment of additive manufacturing has estimated that adopting the technology could further lower carbon dioxide emissions since 3D printing creates localized production, and products would not need to be transported long distances to reach their final destination.[210]
Continuing to adopt additive manufacturing does pose some environmental downsides, however. Despite additive manufacturing reducing waste from the subtractive manufacturing process by up to 90%, the additive manufacturing process creates other forms of waste such as non-recyclable material powders. Additive manufacturing has not yet reached its theoretical material efficiency potential of 97%, but it may get closer as the technology continues to increase productivity.[211]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
- Tran, Jasper (2017). 'Reconstructionism, IP and 3D Printing'. Available on SSRN. SSRN2842345.
- Tran, Jasper (2016). 'Press Clause and 3D Printing'. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property. 14: 75–80. SSRN2614606.
- Tran, Jasper (2016). '3D-Printed Food'. Minnesota Journal of Law, Science and Technology. 17: 855–80. SSRN2710071.
- Tran, Jasper (2015). 'To Bioprint or Not to Bioprint'. North Carolina Journal of Law and Technology. 17: 123–78. SSRN2562952.
- Tran, Jasper (2015). 'Patenting Bioprinting'. Harvard Journal of Law and Technology Digest. SSRN2603693.
- Tran, Jasper (2015). 'The Law and 3D Printing'. John Marshall Journal of Information Technology and Privacy Law. 31: 505–20.
- Lindenfeld, Eric; et al. (2015). 'Strict Liability and 3D-Printed Medical Devices'. Yale Journal of Law and Technology. SSRN2697245.
- Dickel, Sascha; Schrape, Jan-Felix (2016). 'Materializing Digital Futures'. The Decentralized and Networked Future of Value Creation. Progress in IS. pp. 163–78. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31686-4_9. ISBN978-3-319-31684-0.
- 'Results of Make Magazine's 2015 3D Printer Shootout'. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
- 'Evaluation Protocol for Make Magazine's 2015 3D Printer Shootout'. makezine.com. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
- Vincent; Earls, Alan R. (February 2011). 'Origins: A 3D Vision Spawns Stratasys, Inc'. Today's Machining World. 7 (1): 24–25. Archived from the original on 10 March 2012.
- 'Heat Beds in 3D Printing – Advantages and Equipment'. Boots Industries. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
- Albert, Mark (17 January 2011). 'Subtractive plus additive equals more than ( – + + = > )'. Modern Machine Shop. 83 (9): 14.
- Stephens, B.; Azimi, P.; El Orch, Z.; Ramos, T. (2013). 'Ultrafine particle emissions from desktop 3D printers'. Atmospheric Environment. 79: 334–339. Bibcode:2013AtmEn..79..334S. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050.
- Easton, Thomas A. (November 2008). 'The 3D Trainwreck: How 3D Printing Will Shake Up Manufacturing'. Analog. 128 (11): 50–63.
- Wright, Paul K. (2001). 21st Century Manufacturing. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
- '3D printing: a new industrial revolution – Safety and health at work – EU-OSHA'. osha.europa.eu. Retrieved 2017-07-28.
- Hod., Lipson (11 February 2013). Fabricated : the new world of 3D printing. Kurman, Melba. Indianapolis, Indiana. ISBN9781118350638. OCLC806199735.
External links[edit]
- Rapid prototyping websites at Curlie
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